Profil du Pays: Indonésie

Indonesia has been described as one of the most heterogeneous countries in the world. As of 2020, the Indonesian population is 270.2 million and consists of 1,331 ethnic groups who speak 718 languages and dialects. This heterogeneity is reflected in the current Indonesian national model, which is often understood as the product of the negotiation between ethnic, cultural, religious and political interests. Indonesia’s diversity is the result of interaction between culture and religion over thousands of years. For centuries, cross-cultural relationships and the religiosity of the Indonesian people have always been able to produce a tolerant approach to responding to cultural and religious differences. An ancestral credo for Indonesian plurality was embraced by Indonesia’s founders as a national motto, “Unity in Diversity” (Bhinneka Tunggal Ika). This motto underscores Indonesia’s awareness of its pluralistic reality.

Despite this recognition, diversity has faced challenges since Indonesia’s independence in 1945. Through the 1940s and 1960s, armed conflict and tension existed between the central government and some regions in West Java, Sumatra, Sulawesi and eastern parts of Indonesia. Ideology and regionalism were the main challenges facing Indonesia’s nation-building in its early years as seen in the revolts of Darul Islam (a group of radical Islamic movement) and the secessionist movements in those areas (Aceh, West Java and South Sulawesi) in particular. Violence continued until the rise of the New Order regime (1968–1998).

Following the assassination of high-ranking army officers in 1965, political turmoil erupted that resulted in the massacre of almost a half million members and sympathizers of the country’s Communist Party. This led to the ousting of President Sukarno, the first President of independent Indonesia, in March 1968. He was replaced by President Suharto, who held the presidency from 1968 to 1998. During this period, ethnic conflicts and racial riots occurred in some provinces.

As the New Order period came to an end, and in the years immediately after, violent conflict between groups emerged in several regions. Beginning in late 1996, conflicts occurred in Central Kalimantan, Aceh, Papua, East Timor, Maluku, and Central Sulawesi. The conflicts were mainly due to institutional transformation and the reconfiguration of relations between the state and society, as well as inter-religious and inter-ethnic clashes, including against the Chinese. All these conflicts were concluded, if not significantly resolved, by the end of 2002, with the exception of the conflict in Aceh. The Aceh conflict was brought to an end by the Helsinki Peace Agreement in August 2005.

The growing role of Islam in Indonesian political institutions since the 1990s has escalated tension between different religious and ethnic groups. Though it may appear that these conflicts were wholly motivated by religious differences (and claims were made to that extent), they were driven by several factors, including the unequal distribution of economic sources and the unequal allotment of political representation.

Indonesia’s heterogeneity is facing new challenges in the form of populist politics. In recent years, a polarized society has been a central political feature that characterizes the relationship between those who emphasize the principle of liberty and those who support a paradigm of justice. While the former advocates religious pluralism and insists on individual freedom in a number of lifestyles, the latter seek to maintain a tight control over religious norms determining personal as well as communal life. There have been heated debates and lingering controversies between these two camps regarding proposed laws and government regulations on various religious issues at the national and regional level.

Despite all this, Indonesia remains a unified state with a multi-faith, multi-ethnic and multicultural society. Its current diversity typology has been strongly influenced by three major factors:

• Ethno-racial groups, such as the Javanese, Sundanese, Madurese, Malay, Batak, Banjar, Dayak, Buginese and many others, including non-native ethnicities (e.g., Chinese and Indians).
• Faith affiliations and beliefs that include the following: six state-recognized religions (Islam, Protestantism, Catholicism, Hinduism, Buddhism and Confucianism); non-state recognized minorities, including the Shi’a, Ahmadiyah and Baha’i; and Indigenous beliefs, such as Sunda Wiwitan, Kejawen, Kaharingan, Parmalim, Kajang and Tolotang, etc.
• Rural-urban areas where local people or adat (customary or Indigenous) communities represent those who live in the remote or rural zones fight for their rights to land and natural resources.

These categories of diversity (which often overlap) have been important to understand Indonesia’s current political situation, which has been characterized by discrimination, intolerance, exclusion and marginalization. Beyond the three typologies of diversity above, particular perspectives (i.e., provincial backgrounds and gender status) in assessing relevant indicators have been adopted whenever applicable. It is worth noting that economic division as a basis of diversity is unlikely to have played a significant role in today’s Indonesian social sphere. Perhaps this has to do with the demise of the Communist Party in 1966, and the subsequent ban on anything related to communism, including “provocative” ideas of a broadening gap between the rich and the poor.