Profil du Pays: Bolivie

Bolivian society is highly diverse. Ethno-linguistic differences account for much of that diversity, with 36 Indigenous languages formally recognized in the 2009 Constitution. Regional differences are also an important source of diversity, with strong regional identities that often act in combination with increasingly relevant political differences.

Similar to other countries in the region, persistent group-based inequalities in Bolivia are connected to intergenerational and multi-dimensional effects of policies that have historically privileged dominant groups since Spanish colonization. In Bolivia, policies targeting Indigenous peoples have historically focussed on differing degrees of discipline or assimilation into the dominant mestizo (white) society, reflecting Eurocentric ideologies that have in the past viewed Indigenous peoples as a hinderance to nation-building and economic development efforts.

In 1952, the National Revolution brought new forms of inclusion by instituting universal suffrage and ending literacy and property requirements. However, the National Revolution government looked to solve what early twentieth-century governing elites called the country’s “Indian problem,” which defined Indigenous culture and traditions as inherently backward and as an impediment to Bolivia’s transition to a modern nation. In 1952, Bolivia’s population was more than two-thirds indigenous. As part of assimilation efforts, the category “Indian” was replaced with peasant (campesino), eliding recognition of this cultural diversity for many Highland and Valley region groups.

In the 1990s, the term “Indigenous” gained new significance as a claim to group-based identity following the rise of Indigenous movements throughout the country initially led by Indigenous groups from the Bolivian Lowlands and the Amazon (represented by the national organization the Confederation of Indigenous Peoples of Eastern Bolivia (Confederación de Pueblos Indígenas del Oriente Boliviano, CIDOB). This Indigenous organization led a series of marches for “Territory and Dignity” that played a central role in generating a national discussion around cultural identity, territorial claims and Indigenous rights to self-determination in Bolivia. In the Highland region, the formation of the National Council of Ayllus and Markas of Qullasuyu (the Consejo Nacional de Ayllus y Markas del Qullasuyu, CONAMAQ) by a conglomerate of Indigenous organizations in 1997 marked a break among many groups from traditional political representation following the corporatist union structure (and peasant identity category). With the stated aim of reconstituting precolonial governance institutions and territories as Indigenous nations (Charkas, Soras, Qhara Qhara, Killakas and Yamparas), the formation of CONAMAQ represents a landmark in national-level highland Indigenous organizations.

The Constitutional reforms of 1994 and 2004 included the formal recognition of the multicultural and plurilingual nature of Bolivian society but were limited in terms of addressing structural forms of group-based inequality. Yet, measures to include Indigenous peoples were positive in terms of generating new forms of political participation for decision-making based on Indigenous norms and procedures (usos y costumbres). Importantly, these measures would lead to the strengthening of formal Indigenous organizations and the formation of new political parties led by Indigenous representatives, as well as expectations of citizenship and inclusion that contributed to early calls for a Constituent Assembly by Indigenous organizations to rewrite the Constitution to better represent the plural character of Bolivian society.

In 2005, Evo Morales was historically elected as the country’s first self-identifying Indigenous president, following waves of popular protests throughout the country against unpopular neo-liberal economic policies. Shortly after Morales’ election, an alliance of Indigenous, peasant, and women’s organizations, called the Unity Pact (Pacto de Unidad), participated in the Constituent Assembly to put forth proposals for a new Constitution. Passed by popular referendum in 2009, the Constitution defines a new framework of plurinationalism based on ideals of intercultural dialogue and co-existence across the country’s pluralistic cultural, legal, judicial, economic and democratic systems. Indigenous rights included in the Constitution are also based on the United Nations (UN) Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP), with several articles in common. </p align= »justify »>